Dr.S.Venkatesan MD

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Which is the Ideal site to ablate VT circuit ?

Posted in Uncategorized, tagged acc aha esc guidelines, cryoablation, exit site of vt, exit vs entry site, icd vs rf ablation, RF ablation, scar induced vt on January 12, 2023|

Management of recurrent ventricular tachycardia has developed a lot in recent times. Anti-arrhythmic drugs(AADs) were a cornerstone for most recurrent and refractory VTs till recently. Surgeries including CABG,  repair of the aneurysm, and subendocardial resection has helped to control many post-MI ischemic VTs. Soon they became obsolete. Realistically, PCIs had little impact on post-MI VT for some unknown reasons. However, with the advent of ICDs and RF, ablation, a new dimension is added to this field. 

ICDs, though an attractive device, don’t prevent a VT but vow to nullify the consequence of VT. This is problematic. ICDs in spite of their ability to prevent SCD effectively, it has little say in preventing non-sudden deaths of in any form of cardiomyopathy. (In fact, there is some evidence ICDs might increase myocardial damage with inappropriate shocks )

Hence, RF ablation can be called as true curative therapy by extinguishing hot spots of VT genesis. Still, we need to understand ablation is technically creating new dead myocardium (in alreadly  damaged myocardium) and hence, can’t avoid a consequence. More importantly, ablation as a modality is technically more demanding. We have accumulated huge experience with the help of electro-anatomic imaging and cutting-edge hardware in the last few decades. Still, we find it difficult to zero in the target area of RF ablation, with all available techniques of mapping (Activation, substrate, entrainment, and pace mapping) The reason is,  VT circuits can be really complex ones. Not only different loops but also it can travel deep into the myocardium (Intramural or epicardial) making a single approach endocardial often futile. Success rates vary between 60 -70% (Some may claim 90 +)

This post wants the young fellows to take on this fundamental issue and learn in-depth about the arrhythmia circuit.(Get Inspired by Dr. Samuvel Asirwatham of Mayo clinic work )

What is the best site to ablate ventricular tachycardia?

1. Exit point 
2. Central isthmus
3. Entrance 
4. Inner loop
5. Outer loop

• Though logic would tell us we can intercept an arrhythmia by ablating anywhere in the circuit. But the issue here is we need to permanently ablate it. not just interrupting. 
• The best site to ablate is the exit point or entry point. Maybe isthmus. I am not really sure. But, one thing is clear, the outer and inner loops are not important. Further, live tissues are the culprits and not the scars and infarcted zones. 
• One more possible answer is to try to ablate all (or maximum) points in the circuits.

How to identify entry points and exit points?

Not a simple answer .EPs apply their life experience to do that, assisted by technology. Not everyone who has a Carto -GPS can do that.

One simple answer for the fellows is, in entrainment mapping,  critical sites can be somewhat arbitrarily labeled as exit, central isthmus, or entrance on the basis of the Stimulus-QRS interval relationship to the TCL. Exit sites will show an S-QRS interval < 30% TCL (QRS onset shortly after pacing), central isthmuses will show an S-QRS interval of 30% to 50% TCL (some delay in QRS onset after pacing), and entrance sites will show an S-QRS interval of 50% to 70% TCL 

Ruairidh Martin et all Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology. 2018;11:e006569

Final message 

Key to the successful ablation of VT is the accuracy in choosing the target site. Locating the target is meaningless if we can’t reach that site. Reaching the site is again futile unless we are able to deliver adequate burning or icing with sufficient contact.

Meanwhile, AADs can never be ignored in spite of the apparent side effects, for the simple reason they reach the VT circuits without any fuss. The Pharma industry has almost lost its interest in AAD research and the hyper-talented EP guys are squarely responsible for this unintended consequence.

Future directions

RF energy modification and newer catheter designs will help. While cryoablation shows a promising advantage over RF, it is still to prove its sustained efficiency. Meanwhile, other ablation modes are being tried. Transvascular ethanol ablation and stereotactic radio ablation have both shown promise for arrhythmias that fail other ablation strategies.

Some more questions

• What is the difference between arrhythmia focus of origin and entry point? 
• Once the VT is set in, what is the relevance of its origin? 

Reference

One of the very good reviews on the topic.

1.Gustavo S. Guandalini, Jackson J. Liang, Francis E. Marchlinski, Ventricular Tachycardia Ablation: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives,
JACC: Clinical Electrophysiology, Volume 5, Issue 12, 2019, 1363-1383,
2;,W.G. Stevenson, H. Khan, P. Sager, et al.  Identification of reentry circuit sites during catheter mapping and radiofrequency ablation of ventricular tachycardia late after myocardial infarction Circulation, 88 (1993), pp. 1647-1670

3.M.E. Josephson, L.N. Horowitz, H.L. Waxman, et al.Sustained ventricular tachycardia: role of the 12-lead electrocardiogram in localizing site of origin Circulation, 64 (1981), pp. 257-272

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Reviewing top 10 Interventional papers of 2022 : A good lesson on NSTEMI management

Posted in Uncategorized, tagged acc aha nstemi nsteacs guidelines on January 3, 2023|

EHJ has listed the top 10 papers in cardiology in the year 2022 in its current issue. 

Kindly go through this when free. While each of the 10 has its own importance, one meta-analysis, I thought was a  real bright spot. Though the message it conveys is nothing new,  it reaffirms an important management principle in ACS. Getting curious? Before going into the paper, a mini pretest

What is your take on these 4 statements on ACS?  True or False

1. STEMI is an emergency, NSTE-ACS* is not an emergency

2. Both are true emergencies.

3. STEMI is definite, yes, but  NSTE-ACS may or may not be (Mind the GRACE score dude !)

4. Even STEMI can be a non-emergency if the patient reports after 24 -48 hours.

(Remind you, NSTEACS = UA+NSTEMI , still often used interchangeably)

Hope we don’t have difficulty in identifying the wrong response. Whatever the answer to this somewhat insulting question to our intellect, forget it. Now, read this paper, which is listed as one of the most read last year. It is about the impact of early invasive strategy in NSTE-ACS.

Kite TA, Kurmani SA, Bountziouka . Timing of invasive strategy in non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J. 2022 Sep 1;43(33):3148-3161.

Conclusion is pasted for the busy guys.

Post-test

1. What is overall NSTEMI in-hospital mortality? (Everyone knows for STEMI it is around 4-8 %, no one seems to be sure about NSTEMI. I think it can’t be estimated accurately, guess it is 1 -2% )
2. Is there a primary PCI equivalent situation in NSTEMI?  What are they? (Left main UA with AVR ST elevation comes first on the list)
3. Based on the urgency to treat how does the ultimate outcome change? (This is what this meta-analysis by Kite et all proved.It is not a new revelation though . Recall the landmark ICTUS study  of 2010 which was largely kept in the dark )

Final message

One lay definition of STEMI is, It is a mass of myocardium under fire. True UA/NSTEMI is, a mass of myocardium, that is threatening to go on fire. When firefighters are able to reach a smoky building before the onset of a fire, no doubt, it looks like a great & awesome response, Isn’t it? Unfortunately, the myocardial landscape is different and NSTEACS is such a heterogenous entity that doesn’t welcome unsolicited aggressive, emergency rescue missions. That’s one of the messages we get (at least I got )from this top-read paper in 2022. 

Reference

1.Emanuele Barbato, Margaret McEntegart, Tommaso Gori, The year in cardiovascular medicine 2022: the top 10 papers in interventional cardiology, European Heart Journal, 2023;, ehac778, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehac778

2.Kite TA, Kurmani SA, Bountziouka V, Cooper NJ, Lock ST, Gale CP, Flather M, Curzen N, Banning AP, McCann GP, Ladwiniec A. Timing of invasive strategy in non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J. 2022 Sep 1;43(33):3148-3161.

3.Damman P, Hirsch A, Windhausen F, et al. 5-Year Clinical Outcomes in the ICTUS (Invasive versus Conservative Treatment in Unstable coronary Syndromes) Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010 Mar, 55 (9) 858–864.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2009.11.026

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Who can answer this unusual query in mitral stenosis?

Posted in Atrial fibrillation, Mitral stenosis, Uncategorized, tagged Atrial mass in mg, LAH in mitral stenosis, left atrial hypertrophy, left atrial mass, thickness of left atrium on December 20, 2022|

I will go with the last response. As for as I understand, we have never quantified Atrial muscle mass properly even in normality. One may be tempted to think there is no purpose to measure it, other than academic reasons. The fact that the incidence of atrial fibrillation in mitral stenosis is not linearly correlating with LA size makes us think, LA mass (Virtual LAH) may have a say in triggering AF.

This post is meant for cardiology fellows. Maybe someone can do a study on this by measuring LA mass pre and post-PTMC, we might get an idea about regression as well. Meanwhile, we are well versed with infiltrative diseases like atria like amyloidosis that can mimic LAH. Currently, we realize fatty infiltration of LA is the common trigger for AF in varied populations.

By the way, readers are welcome to post any specific formula to measure LA mass if they come across .

Reference

A good review of LA anatomy.

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“Professional etiquette” need not be misplaced

Posted in Uncategorized on November 29, 2022|

 

 

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Anemia in cardiac failure : Needs little more attention

Posted in Uncategorized, tagged anemia in cardiac failure on November 19, 2022|

HF is the inability (or reduced ability) to supply oxygen and other nutrients to fulfill the body’s demands. In the process, the heart either fights or flights, and results in symptoms due to hemodynamic alterations, or adversities of neuro-hormonal activation.

Now, what is Anemia? Anemia is a condition with reduced or dysfunctional RBCs. that directly interferes with oxygen delivery to tissues. It is not at all a coincidence, the core functions of the heart and blood are strikingly similar and intertwined. While the heart is the powerhouse of the circulatory system, without good-quality blood, the greatness of this vital organ becomes redundant.

 

A failing heart & compromised blood, throws up a double challenge, to the fundamental function of the circulatory system and results in impaired cellular oxygen delivery.

 

Fortunately, RBC and Hemoglobin have an adequate reserve, and real metabolic issues happen only after a 30 %  reduction in hemoglobin. During this time the heart works more to compensate by maintaining high output. When HB falls less than 6 to 7 grams the heart itself suffers from hypoxia and goes for intrinsic failure. So, when anemia coexists with cardiomyopathy imagine the tissue’s plight.

Anemia in Heart failure 

 

While there are many links between anemia and heart failure few things are worth emphasizing. It can be discussed in 4 categories.

1. Primary anemia that results in heart failure is a separate topic and comes under high-output HF.
2. Anemia as a part of the same disease process as heart failure. (Anemia of chronic illness) 
3. Nutritional anemia associated with common forms of heart failure (Ischemic and non-ischemic DCM) 
4. Anemia of CKD and coexisting heart failure 

*Category 2 is often missed, while category 3 is often ignored

Prevalence of anemia in HF.. Up to 30%. (Iron deficiency anemia is the most common)

Diagnosis: Criteria Ferritin less than100 or 100-299 μg/L with transferrin saturation <20%). 

What is the optimal Hb %?  Should be 13 grams

Iron deficiency is much more than anemia 

It is worthwhile to go back to the basics, anemia is just one aspect of iron deficiency. Humans live their life, essentially inside the breathing chambers of mitochondria in each of the 12 trillion cells.  Without an adequate iron supply, the citric acid cycle will come to a creeping halt. It is now recognized, altered mitochondrial function is one of the key peripheral defects in HF. (Ref 1) Iron deficiency could be an Incidental marker for a more important tissue deficit elsewhere. 

What do the trials say about the role of routine Iron supplements in HF?

As usual, trials blink with data on either side of the truth. Small studies suggested benefits. But large studies with Iron supplements and Erhytopoitn analogs failed to show benefits. IRON-OUT, RED -HF (Ref 2,3) . But in a popular study from the Lancet , showed ferric carboxymaltose improved the outcome. (Ponikowski P,l. Lancet. 2020 Dec 12;396(10266):1895-1904).

Final message

We, as modern-day cardiologists are always pre-occupied with measures to improve LV ejection fraction at any cost (Since we fell into a false knowledge trap of defining HF solely on the basis of  EF% ) To make HF patients walk 30 meters extra in a 6-minute walk test we have complex and costly procedures like CRT, Mitra clips, and IAS flow regulators,  etc.

However, experience tells us there are many parameters other than EF that can improve functional capacity and quality of life. Breathing exercise is the best example. Let’s add one more to this list. A simple correction of anemia with iron can make your cardiac failure patient walk many blocks more. Trials are not consistently confirming this though. Don’t bother them,  just have a try. If prescribing tablet iron without evidence bothers you with scientific guilt, ask your patient to take a diet with rich iron content and see the difference.

For advanced readers

Anemia and  Aortic afterload: The apparent advantage

There is one curious concept. Anemia makes the blood thin. Reason lowered viscosity. As a consequence afterload falls. , hypoxia-induced peripheral vasodilatation and enhanced nitric oxide activity also contribute to this.  Vasodilatation also involves the recruitment of microvessels and, in the case of chronic anemia, stimulation of angiogenesis. So, anemia apparently has a double edge, and one of them seems to be beneficial.

We must also beware, the risk of iron overload is genuine in some of these patients with HF. This makes us wonder, in ancient times venesection was used for so many undisclosed illnesses, which might include heart disease as well.

Reference

1. Melenovsky  V, Petrak  J, Mracek  T,  et al.  Myocardial iron content and mitochondrial function in human heart failure.  Eur J Heart Fail. 2017;19(4):522-530

2. Lewis GD, Malhotra R, Hernandez AF, et al. Effect of Oral Iron Repletion on Exercise Capacity in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction and Iron Deficiency: The IRON OUT HF Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;317(19):1958–1966. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.5427

3. Swedberg K, Young JB, Anand IS, Cheng S, Desai AS, Diaz R, Maggioni AP, McMurray JJ, O’Connor C, Pfeffer MA, Solomon SD, Sun Y, Tendera M, van Veldhuisen DJ; RED-HF Committees; RED-HF Investigators. Treatment of anemia with darbepoetin alfa in systolic heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2013 Mar 28;368(13):1210-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1214865. Epub 2013 Mar 10. PMID: 23473338.

 

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Loyalty in the medical profession: Something seems to be wrong!

Posted in Quotes, Uncategorized, wisdom in cardiology, tagged best quotes in medical ethics, dr s venkatesan, dr venkat quotes, madars medical college, medical education, medical ethics, venkatesan sanagreddi on November 10, 2022|

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Understanding “Damping and Ventricularization” in cath lab.

Posted in Uncategorized, tagged coronary artery damping and ventricularization, Damping and ventricularization, ventricularization on October 26, 2022|

“Never take your eyes off the monitor and the pressure curve” It is one of the basic instructions given to the fellows & technicians as they start engaging the coronary artery and Intubating the coronary ostium in their early cath lab postings. There are two commonly heard noise bites in the cath lab for the beginner. 1. Damping 2.Ventricularization.

Damping

It is the deformation of the normal arterial pressure curve, with a blunting of both systolic and diastolic pressure that drops compared to aortic pressure. Extreme damping can mimic a straight line with few wavy undulations. It means the forward flow is impeded as the catheter might be blocking the coronary flow at least partially, if not completely. Immediate pull back and adjustment of catheter is required to prevent adverse events that includes cardiac arrest. (Of course, catheter kinks, blocks, and air in a circuit are to be ruled out first)

Mechanism of damping

1. The catheter tip is too large for the ostium.(Technical)
2. A left main or RCA ostial lesion*(Most significant clinically)
3. The coronary artery wall is thin and goes for spasm
4. Catheter diameter is too small and glides into the coronary artery (The catheter tip hitches against the lateral wall of the coronary artery often over a plaque, a silently staged perfect setting for a dissection )

Unique features in RCA damping

In RCA, damping could simply mean it has engaged conus branch. Damping is more common in RCA and it tends to get sucked in deeper for two reasons. We know , the RCA catheter is not preformed, the tip seeks the ostium, looking for a negative pulling pressure from within the RCA. Further, unlike the LCA, the flow in RCA is continuous in both systole and diastole. Another possible factor is the inspiratory swings of RV transmural pressure is more than LV.

Transient bradycardia due to compromise of SA /AV nodal flow is common. It is well known that RVOT is a thin and VPD-prone zone , compared toLVOT. Hence it is more vulnerable to ischemia and triggers a VT/VF if damping is prolonged in RCA.

Ventricularization

This is tracing during the engaging of a left main ostial stenosis. The diastolic pressure drops on the third complex, and the pulse pressure becomes large . Note the small “a ” wave slur as well near the diastolic nadir. The aortic pressure curve is restored once tip adjustment is done. Image courtesy Thoraci key.https://thoracickey.com/coronary-angiography-3/

It simply means the pressure curve starts looking like a ventricular pressure curve. The issue is not that simple. It is still a mystery, how could the coronary artery pick up ventricular pressure. In fact, it doesn’t. It was initially thought to be either deformed aortic pressure or a wedged coronary artery pressure .or a combination of the two.

It s now accepted it’s due to total occlusion of the coronary artery the ventricle muscle sucks the catheter and pulls the diastolic pressure markedly down even lower than LVEDP. The systolic pressure also falls but not much of it is noticed.The fact that ventriculaization happens less commonly with RCA gave us a clue to its mechanism. (Most of the RCA travels over RV and since RV muscle mass wields less negative suction force )

How to differentiate true LV location from ventricularization?

If the catheter enters the LV cavity, the systolic pressure will match that of aortic systolic pressure and diastole will reach the LVEDP. In ventricularization there can be a slight drop of the systolic pressure, but the diastolic is the one goes far down. Further, the ascending limb is shallower, the descending limb is steeper in coronary ventricularization. Apart from this if we carefully look “a” waves will be visible in ventricularisation in the late diastolic phase.(Could it be the modified Incisura ?)

Relationship between damping and ventricularization ?

Discussing damping and ventricularization together is more of an academic tradition. Please realize, both may not be two exclusive entities. In fact, they can occur at the same time, or sequentially or interchangeably if the catheter tip swings back to partial to total occlusion and vice versa. if complete wedging occurs it becomes ventriculariszation.

Which is more dangerous damping or ventricularization?

How can you ask such a question? Both can be harbingers of serious hemodynamic issues if ignored and accidentally injected, The dreaded one is the dissection. Apart from mechanical injury, Injecting dye during damping or ventricularization causes dye stasis, and may trigger VT or VF if it is prolonged. There is a biochemical component too. As the contrast swirls around for a few seconds it can cause transient hypocalcemia by chelating this cation.

I don’t have a clear answer to the above query. In my understanding, forceful injections during ventricularization could be more riskier as injection happens over a total occlusion in a wedged position and dye has direct access to the microcirculatory bed. It is true, expert cardiologists do shoot in damped positions occasionally to see the anatomy quickly. They may be your mentors, still don’t learn this trick, till you become a true expert (Famously referred to as hit and run technique)

How to overcome these pressure curve malformations?

Most times, it is a simple technical artifact issue. Deep Intubation with an oversized catheter could be the commonest cause in the otherwise normal coronary artery. Proper catheter sizing, angle of alignment, and adjustment is the key. If it is a spasm nitroglycerine might help. Using catheters with side-hole perfusion catheters is an option in difficult anatomies. Mind you, side holed guide is a two-edged weapon, it can mask true hemodynamic adversaries by falsely showing a good aortic pressure tracing.

(One of the good cath lab habits is to have a look around the patient face at least once in a while when performing complex procedures. We have many times recognized serious hemodynamic issues only after the patient starts behaving bizarrely due to hypotension. Pressure curves can fool you, but patience will never.)

Final message

Recognizing abnormal waveforms during engagement is a crucial step for the beginner (Experts can’t ignore though) Please remember LMCA stenosis should be the default alarm for any damped pressure curve as you engage the LCA. If you take things casually consequences can be lethal for the patient as well as the consultant in charge.(Fellows can’t take it lighter though). It is an undisclosed fact, that many of the serious complications in the cath lab happen not out of ignorance or lack of expertise, but because of ignoring some basic principles and lack of cath lab discipline.

Reference

1.Baim DS, ed. Grossman’s Cardiac Catheterization, Angiography, and Intervention. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006. 2. Judkins MP. Selective coronary arteriography, a percutaneous transfemoral technique. Radiology 1967;89:815.

2.T Pacold I, Hwang MH, Piao ZE, . The mechanism and significance of ventricularization of intracoronary pressure during coronary angiography.Am Heart J. 1989 Dec;118(6):1160-

3.A good review from Journal of Invasive cardiology .

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