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Posts Tagged ‘ptca’

Why should a stent elute drug ?

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology- coronary care, Cardiology-Coronary artery disese, cardiology-ethics, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , on December 14, 2008| Leave a Comment »

Stents are mechanical  devices like  a  spring ,  used to  keep an artery open after a PTCA or PCI.

des-why4

                                Bare metal stents(BMS) were found to have restenois rate of about 25%.  So it was perceived a stent should have it’s own protective coat , so that it won’t get restenosed.For this the researchers thought  anti cancer drugs are ideal as they block cell proliferation and thus neovascualrisation and restenosis.Alas, they were found dismally wrong ,  after all , neointiaml proliferation is only a part of the problem of restenosis  and simple blocking of cell growth is insufficient . The issue doesn’t stop with that, the anti cancer drugs incorporated within the stent simply can not differentiate normal from abnormal cells and

DES effectively blocks the normal endothelisation over the stents and make this highly vulnerable for acute stent thrombosis .

This complication is unique to DES and can result in SCD.Further ,during the last 6 years of DES , we recognised the restenosis rate has increased form the much hyped O % to almost 15% and it’s still growing . These  complications  has made a huge question mark over the future of drug eluting stents !

des-coverage

The concept of DES may not die , but which drug it should elute should be answered ! This  again is  going to be a long battle. So it is currently   adviced,  based  on common sense ( With due respects to  those RCTs  funded by industry )

Whenever you encounter a block within the coronary artery* Ask the following  questions in sequence  ,

  • Whether we can leave it alone  with medical therapy  ,  if the answer is no , proceed  to the next step !
  • Is there a possibility for plain balloon angioplasty in a given vessel (POBA, Yes !  the concept is not dead yet !)
  • If you decide a stent is required , Will  the  bare metal  do the job ?
  • In multivessel CAD  , Did the issue of increased metal load on the  long term outcome was considered ?
  • If lesions appear complex,  should we  not strongly consider CABG as an option ?

However  if we  have the habit of  ask ing the following  question  you are likely to deviate from scientific approach  

Is it possible to put a stent  across  the block ?

Yes , will be the answer most of the time ,and the patient will invariably get one or more stents  and carry a life long  stent related problems.

*The rule does not apply in Acute coronary syndromes

Also read this letter  posted by the author published in  British medical journal

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Drug eluting stents bare it all ! and bare metal stents cover it all !

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology -Therapeutics, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , on December 14, 2008| 1 Comment »

                                      One of the important principles of  post PCI care is,   we need  to be very careful  till the metal struts are fully endothelialised . This is of vital importance as improper endothelialisation  is a powerful trigger and nidus for a  imminent thrombosis and  acute coronary syndrome.

stent

It is a billion dollor irony , the much hyped DES does exactly what we don’t want ! and still it’s  usage is  increasing world wide .  The drugs (Anti cancer agents)  which coat the DES   are the villains as it  prevents  the  metal struts  from being endothelialised  and  keep the metal surface  raw and vulnerable , while the  much maligned  bare metal stents allow  this natural endothelialisation  process  without any interruption ! So right now it is mandatory  to administer dual antiplatelet agents  life long( life of the stent !)   for the patients with DES.

 Just look , at the following image of  a stent in vitro at  30 days follow up

des

des-2

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Can stable angina occur at rest ?

Posted in Cardiology - Clinical, Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology -Therapeutics, cardiology- coronary care, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on November 11, 2008| 1 Comment »

                                        Angina pectoris , classically occur on exertion and gets relieved on rest .This is called typical chronic stable angina as described by Heberden (CSA ) .  Unstable angina(UA), the term originally described by Noble O Fowler in early 1970s. ( Also being referred as  intermediate coronary syndrome , preinfarction angina etc).The definition for unstable angina has evolved  over the years  and currently  refers to .

 1.All new onset angina of any degree* Some include severe angina only ! New onset angina of very mild degree on exertion could be the onset of the first episode of  stable  angina. 

 2.Rest angina of more than >30 mts not relieved by taking sublingual nitroglycerine.

 3.All Post MI angina

 4.Any angina in patients who have been stented by PCI.

How to recognise a patient  who is shifting from  stable angina to  UA ? 
UA is  to be suspected when  a patient develops. 
5.More frequent episodes than usual
6.Angina occurring at lesser level of exertion than before 
7.Angina radiating to new site ( Example : Chest pain radiating  to jaw rather than to the usual left arm or vice versa)

Why the first episode of angina is given a special status and often considered critica ?

Angina is the  clinical expression of   myocardial ischemia.The course of  the  first  episode of angina , can not be predicted.It could be a the beginning of a chronic disease process, or it could be a progressive coronary occlusion as in unstable angina /NSTMEI , or the onset of even a STEMI.
In contrast a patient with chronic stable angina  has a predictable chest pain , at a particular level of exertion, radiation to same site, same character, and the patient knows for sure the pain  would promptly dissappear  when he takes rest or nitroglycerine  tablets.

What is the underlying pathology in UA ?  

Generally it is very rare for  a stable plaque to produce a  serious episode of unstable angina .It  requires  an unstable plaque* to  precipitate an unstable angina !
Unstable plaque refers to any plaque which is eroded, fissured, ruptured or  hanging  eccentrically ,  with
an active thrombus.

What is the significance of post PCI angina?

It is an irony, any angina following PCI is to be considered unstable as sudden occlusion of stent is quiet common.This is a paradox of sorts as one would wonder in a patient  with CSA who undergoes PCI with stenting  of left anterior descending coronary artery  (LAD)  all his subsequent episodes of angina  will be labelled as UA  even if a stable angina occur in his other coronary artery.And these patients would go for early invasive approach and potentially inappropriate interventions even if they are at low risk !

Is all angina at rest can be termed as unstable angina ?

No, but many times ,  rather most of the times  cardiologist believe all rest angina to be unstable.

What are the situations where stable angina can occur at rest?

An episode of angina during mental stress, or post prandial* state are very common in patients with CSA. This gets relieved after the stress. Some times  patients with CSA during episodes of fever may get angina at rest .These are considered variants of stable angina.
Post prandial angina , may be considered by some as unstable

How often a diagnostic confusion occur between CSA and UA ?

Generally, this issue is rarely addressed in cardiology literature , for the  simple reason it is never considered an  issue at all !
According to Canadian cardiovascular society grade 4 stable angina  is almost similar to unstable angina , as it denotes angina occurs with minimal effort or even at rest. In fact CCSC grade 4 should be termed as UA.

Can ECG be useful to identify stable angina from unstable angina ?

                                    ECG will some times  come to our rescue when one is confused between stable and unstable angina even though resting ST depression can occur in both stable and unstable angina . Statistically , if ST depression is noted during an episode of angina it is more likely to be UA rather than CSA. . Apart  from ECG , Troponin T or I levels may be elevated in some of the patients with unstable angina. Rarely stable angina can also show elevated troponin.

In patients with systemic hypertension and LVH or cardiomyopathy resting ST depression may not indicate UA 

So differentiation between, stable and unstable angina even though appear simple and  straight forward, it requires a diligent appraisal of history , physical examination (Aortic stenosis /HCM  may cause stable angina)  and ECG, enzyme evaluation.

Final message

In any coronary care unit ,  admissions with initial diagnosis of  ACS/UA/NSTEMI , subsequently turn out to be simple stable coronary artery disese . This error happens because the chest pain  or ECG changes  are aggravated by non cardiac factors like a mental stress or a post operative stress  or fever etc.
There could  be another school of thought, that is to err on the side of  safety, and manage all  rest angina as UA  .But the hazards of unwarranted therapy might exceed the risks of leaving these patients alone.
In this context ,there is a need for a new definition for unstable angina .
One ideal version could be . . .
  • Any angina , of any degree  which is caused  mainly by the supply side defect (By a acute thrombotic /disruptive plaque   occluding the  coronary lumen  with a imminent danger of myocardial infarction is to termed as real UA.
  •  All post MI and post PCI angina are unstable angina
  •  Rest angina which occurs due to increased demand situations need not be  labelled  as unstable angina for the simple reason  there is neither an active plaque nor a  fresh thrombus likely  in these patients. They rarely develop  recurrent angina or MI . The mechanism of angina at rest here is most often due to a tachycardia and resultant increase in MVO2 .(myocardial oxygen consumption) .Currently they are called as secondary unstable angina.In fact , anti thrombotic drugs are misused in these situations as they satisfy the criteria of UA/NSTEMI.

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What is the simplest possible guideline for doing coronary angiogram following acute myocardial infarction ?

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology- coronary care, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on October 11, 2008| Leave a Comment »

Answer: Do  coronary angiogram  for all patients  who had suffered from an acute myocardial infarction* ( Forget about all those mulitpage ACC/AHA  guidelines !).

For an  interventional cardiologist ,  it is often  considered a crime to  follow a conservative  approach !

*Caution : This one line guideline is not based on scientific fact  but reality based . Ideally one should identify  high risk subsets among the patients who had an AMI .Patients who had complications during the MI get immediate CAG. Others need  a focused LV function asessment ,  pre discharge  sub maximal excercise stress test or perfusion studies .But this concept has been  virtually replaced by pre discharge coronary angiogram for all ,  in many  of the centres in the world.

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Advantages of Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH)

Posted in Cardiology - Clinical, cardiology- coronary care, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 10, 2008| 1 Comment »

This is a 15-year-old post about LVH, written in 2008. Few of my colleagues, now agree with this, still hesitate to oblige in the open, suggesting it is too good to be true! Re-posting it for your own assessment. Surprised, why cardiology community didn’t consider this observation worthy to pursue.

Advantages of Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH)

Left ventricular hypertrophy is one of the most common clinical cardiac entity.It is recognised either by ECG or echocardiography.LVH has a unique place in cardiology as it can imply a  grossly pathological state or  a marker of healthy heart as in physiological hypertrophy in athletes.

Logic would suggest, in this era of  stem cells and  nano medicine ,  every muscle fibre in ventricle is worth in gold !. So when the nature provides an  extra reserve of myocardium in the form of LVH one should welcome it , if otherwise not harmful.

Is LVH due to systemic hypertension benign ?

Not really, LVH has been shown to be an independent cardiac risk factor. (The famous Framingham study)Further LVH can result in diastolic dysfunction and the risk of cardiac failure increases.

But in spite of these observations, an  astute clinician with considerable experience will appreciate , patients with LVH fare better during an acute coronary syndrome !

This has been a consistent clinical observation . (Shall we call it as class C . ACC /AHA evidence ? )

Is LVH  an asset during ACS ?

  • A hypertrophied heart takes ischemic injury very easy , it doesn’t really hurt much . Another possibility is that in  LVH myocytes are relatively resistant to hypoxia .
  • Patients with LVH rarely show  significant wall motion defect following an STEMI.This is probably because the full thickness transmural necrosis is almost never possible even if extensive MI occurs.
  • This is also reflected in ECG  as these patients   rarely develop q waves in  following STEMI .
  • Persistent ST elevation and failed thrombolysis is very uncommon in pateints with LVH.
  • LVH provides  a relative immunity against development of cardiogenic shock . It requires 40% of LV mass destruction to produce cardiogenic shock.This can rarely happen in LVH. In a  long term analysis we have found none of the patient with LVH developed cardiogenic shock following STEMI.
  • LVH patients  are also protected against development of free wall rupture.

 Concluding message

                   “Lack of published evidence is the weakest evidence to dismiss a true myth”

LVH , either pathological or physiological, has a hitherto unreported beneficial effect.It acts as a myocardial reserve and helps limit the impact of STEMI.

 

 

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Why thrombolysis is contraindicated in unstable angina ?

Posted in Cardiology - Clinical, cardiology- coronary care, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 10, 2008| 9 Comments »

              Intra coronary thrombosis is the sine qua non of acute coronary syndrome ( Both STEMI and NSTEMI.) But thrombolysis is the specific therapy in STEMI and is contraindicated in NSTEMI/UA.

Why is this apparent paradox ? What is basic differnce between UA and AMI ?

In STEMI there is a sudden & total occlusion of a coronary artery usually by a thrombus with or without a plaque .The immediate aim is to open up the blood vessel . Every minute is important as myocardium undergoes  a continuous process ischemic necrosis. So thrombolysis (or more specifically fibrinolysis should be attempted immediately) .The other option is primary angioplasty,  which will not be discussed here.

The thrombus in STEMI  is RBC &  fibrin rich and often called a red clot. Number of fibrinolytic agents like streptokinase, Tissue palsminogen activator,(TPA) Reteplace, Tenekteplace etc have been tested and  form the cornerstone of STEMI management.The untoward effect of stroke  during  thrombolysis  is well recognised , but usully the risk benefit ratio favors thrombolyis in most situations except in very elderly and previous history of stroke or bleeding disorder.

Unstable angina is a  close companion of STEMI . Many times it precedes STEMI often called preinfarction angina. During this phase blood flow in the coronary artery  becomes sluggish gradually,and patients develop  angina at rest .But unlike STEMI there is never a total occlusion and myocardium  is viable but ischemic,  and emergency salvaging of myocardium is not a therapeutic aim but prevention of MI becomes an aim. It is a paradox of sorts ,  even though thrombus is present in  UA ,  It has been learnt by experience thrombolytic agents are not useful in preventing an MI .

 

Why  thrombolysis is not useful in UA ?

1.In unstable angina  mechanical obstruction in the form of plaque fissure/rupture is more common than completely occluding thrombus. So lysis becomes less important.

2. Even if the thrombus is present , it is often intra plaque  or intra lesional and the  luminal  projection of thrombus is reduced  and hence thromolytic agents have limited area to act.

3.Further in UA/NSTEMI since it is a slow and gradual occlusion (Unlike sudden & total occlusion in STEMI) the platelets  get marginalised and trapped within the plaque .Hence in UA  thrombus is predominantly  white  . Often, a central platelet core  is  seen over which fibrin clot may also be  formed.

4.All available  thrombolytic agents act basically as a fibrinolytic agents,  and   so it finds   difficult to lyse the platelet rich clot.There is also a small risk of these agents lysing the fibrin cap and exposing underlying platelet  core and trigger a fresh thrombus.This has been documented in many trials( TIMI 3b to be specific) So if we thrombolyse in UA , there could be a risk of recurrent ACS episodes in the post thrombolytic phase.

5. UA is a semi emergency where  there is no race against time to salvage myocardium .Administering a  stroke prone thrombolytic agent tilts the risk benefit ratio against it.

6. Among UA, there is a significant group of secondary /perioperative UA   due to increased demand situations. Here there is absolutely no role for any thromolytic agents,  the  simple reason is , there is  no thrombus to get lysed. 

7.Many of the UA patient have multivessel CAD and might require surgical revascualarisation directly .

 

So fibrinolytic  agents are contraindicated in UA so what is the next step ?

The emergence of  intensive and aggressive platelet-lytic agents.

A combination of aspirin, clopidogrel, heparin, glycoprotien 2b 3a antagonist formed the major therapeutic protocol in these patients.Even though these are called antiplalet agents some of them  like 2b/3a antagonist eptifibatide, tirofiban, and many times even heparin has a potential to dissolve a thrombus. So technically one can call these agents  as thrombolytic agents.

What are the unresolved issues

                                       Even though clinical trials have convincingly shown thrombolytic agents  have no use in UA .There is a nagging belief  THAT  there could  be group of patients  with UA , still might benefit from thrombolysis as total occlusions have been documented  in some cases with UA.This is  especially true in peri-infarction unstable angina (Pre & post) as there is a fluctuation  between total and subtotal occlusions ) .But bed side recognition of this population is very difficult.

Many would consider this issue as redundant now,  since  most of  these patients  are taken up for emergency revascularisations

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What is the simple approach to bifurcation PCI ?

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, Infrequently asked questions in cardiology (iFAQs), tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , on September 6, 2008| Leave a Comment »

There are numerous complex grading for bifurcation lesions available.

The one proposed by Medina is simple and most useful.

In this grading three segments

  • Proximal main vessel
  • Distal main vessel
  • Branch vessel

Are given a code 0, and 1 if  lesion is present or absent .

This grading gives simple and fast method to label a bifurcatiuon lesion and to asssess the response to PCI. The only issue here is the individual  lesions are not graded , for example branch vessel ostium just involved about 20 % is not addressed . Further TIMI flow in these vessels may also be incorporated

How medina grading can be used to assess effectiveness of

angioplasty  ?

A patient with 1.1.1  after the treatment should revert back to 0.0.0.  if converted into 0.0.(.5) may indicate a residual side branch lesion  .5 shall indicate 50% residual lesion, .3 , 30% etc

 

What is the best management strategy for bifurcation lesions?

The topic has been discussed extensively for over a decade in various forums.

Though the lesions and intervention techniques  appear complex the basic concept is simple.

Following is the 8 point algorithm

1. Assess the bifurcation lesion accurately.

2. Apply the general rule and ask the first question whether PCI is neccessary at all ? if decided for PCI

3. Stent the main vessel.Protect the side branch.  

4. Dilate the side branch with a balloon.(KIss or through the struts) 

5. Very rarely,  if the side vessel is more significant and large  stent it and balloon the main vessel.

6. Use drug eluting stents with caution .

7. Resist the temptation of using two stents unless the situation demands and is absolutely required.

8. Never attempt to do bifurcation angioplasty during ACS as apart of primary angioplasty.( Unless you’re extremely competent, even then aim of primary PCI is to salvage myocarium quickly , not to provide TIMI 3 flow in non IRA vessel.)

Dr.S.Venkatesan.Madras medical college.Chennai.

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What is a normal coronary angiogram & What is a normal coronary artery ? Do they mean the same ?

Posted in Cardiology - Clinical, Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, tagged , , , , , , , , , on August 31, 2008| 1 Comment »

Coronary angiogram is a video graphic  snap shot of coronary arterial lumen which is filled with radio opaque dye. This is some times called as coronary luminogram . It is a paradox , when we say normal coronary angiogram we can only mean  normal coronary lumen. But  generally, this can provide sufficient  information regarding the status of  coronary blood flow.There are three structured layers in coronary artery wall . Coronary angiogram  can not give any information about the status of the intima, media or adventia .

Lesions A to F may be totally missed by conventional coronary angiogram

Lesions A to F may be totally missed by conventional coronary angiogram

A patient with normal coronay angiogram can have diffuse  atheroscelrosis or  localised atherosclerosis within the media of coronary artery .Many times these atherosclerotic plaques grow outward into the adventia and fail to encroach upon the lumen to be detected by coronary angiogram. These plaques , even though has an hemodynamic advantage, in that it doesn’t block blood flow , has a serious risk for sudden rupture and result in an acute coronary syndrome.

So what is the message?

A normal coronary angiogram can never convey a meaning of normal coronary arteries.


A person who has a normal coronary angiogram has no guarantee that he won’t develop a coronary event in the near future.(But the the chances are very low)

If coronary angiogram has serious limitations  what is the next alternative ?

Intra vascular ultra sound imaging(IVUS) can give us an idea of the coronary arterial wall anatomy. This investigation , though available for clinical application is too complex for regular use.So , you  can’t subject every patient with normal CAG  to an IVUS  (Intra vascualar ultra sound) to confirm the normality. The best option is what we follow every day in our practice  .Tell your patients   with normal coronary angiogram , that they are likely to  have  normal coronary arteries  ! don’t add up to their anxiety by saying,  in spite of normal CAG  still they  can carry  gross atherosclerosis in their  arteries. Anxiety can precipitate an coronary event. Too much technical information to the patients  can be counter productive. Instead  advice regular life style modification,  blood pressure ,diabetes, lipid  control  etc .

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Don’t panic when you diagnose a left main disease in routine coronary angiogram : It may cost you a life !

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology- coronary care, Uncategorized, tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , on August 25, 2008| Leave a Comment »

                                                          Left main coronary  lesions are  fairly common  during routine coronary angiogram.These may be a critical or a innocuous lesion.The  word “left main” triggers a sort of alarm reaction to many cath lab staff as well as the cardiologists and surgeon.Many times, these left main lesions are detected in patients   with chronic stable angina who have stable symptoms. Left main disese has not been graded  clearly in literature . Often it is perceived , any lesion in LM is serious.

There is an unwritten rule,  rather a medical compulsion  to take a patient  with left main disease  for emergency CABG ( Now some centres ,emergency PCI) .Some institutions make it  a rule these patients  are posted  in the  next available slot in the theatre.

 The basic question we raise here is   “Should we consider all  left main  disease  as  an  emergency”?

Not really , especially when it occurs in a stable angina .One can wait , buy some time to fully evaluate and prepare  the patient  and may be the patient can be posted  as an elective case. It is a well recognised fact that, CABG carries adverse outcome when done as an emergency procedure. This is primarily due to inadequate pre op work up and resultant complications. It is also well known ,  surgical  back up team may not be available in full strength in odd hours .

This post is  to convey the message , that left main is  a serious disease but that doesn’t  mean it should elicit  a panic reaction and be taken as an ultra emergency . There has been many morbid and fatal outcomes in many hospitals due to this apparent  pseudo emergency !

 

Note* 1.Left main  disease during acute coronary syndrome is to be seen in different perspective.2.Some of the proximal LAD lesions are so tight and  could be more significant than left main lesions.

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Guideline violations in cardiology practice : Every body does it , so do I !

Posted in Cardiology -Interventional -PCI, cardiology- coronary care, cardiology-ethics, tagged , , , , , , , , , on August 24, 2008| Leave a Comment »

All is not well,  that ends well !

                                       Treatment guidelines in cardiology  practice  are periodically published by ACC/AHA/ESC.These guidelines  represent the current scientific practice. They are called some times as recommendations. Medical professionals tend to adhere to this guidelines whenever possible.They are not legally binding in most of the countries.In USA some states believe it, to be legally binding.

 

The problem with these guidelines  are , they are classified as class 1 ,class 2 , class 3 recommendations.

 

Class 1, A  drug , device  or a procedure  Is definitely useful and must be prescribed.

Class 3,   A  drug , device  or a procedure  Is not useful and should not be used .

Class 2*, A  drug , device  or a procedure  may be useful  or may be harmful , and hence may be used or may not be used . (Vaguest possible guideline!)

 *Altered to convey the meaning

What are the  guideline violations that can be sued in court of law  ?

A person with established  CAD who is not been prescribed a  statin (Cholesterol lowering drug)  can be sued straight away,  even if the patient has no adverse outcome due to the nonprescription of that drug. The issue here is , the doctor  has not prescribed  a drug which has  proven benefit .The law is clear on that .Most will  agree that,  the  doctor is at fault ,  and he  is never protected  even by their  colleagues .He  can’t defend his action.

What are the medical errors that can never* be sued in court of law !

But the same doctor who opens up a totally occluding coronary artery in an asymptomatic patient(CTO -chronic total occlusion) and lands up  in a complication and the  patient dies. This could be  major guideline violation as opening a CTO in an incidentally detected , asymptomatic patient is a class 3 recommendation. Neither the physician, patient , institution  nor  the regulatory authorities bother about this even though there is strong case for censure , in reality it never happens. Number  of  experts from leading hospitals do this procedure in live work shop all over the world with full media glare, It is an irony the same  experts are only  writing  in their  guidelines  that  these procedures should not be done inappropriately.

And this medical  error ( Should we call it a  crime if it is knowingly done ! )   keeps growing as the physician never feels guilty about it .

The message here is

 A physician of a state of the art hospital,  in a scientifically advanced  country  goes scott free and guilt free  even if he openly violate the scientific guidelines and do a inappropriate procedure that result in a patient death. Mean while a small time physician in a remote place in the same country can be taken to task  for not prescribing a officially  recommended drug (By standard guidelines) .He will be labelled unscientific and unethical even if his non prescription , had not caused any untoward health outcome .

In short , in today’s modern medical practice 

 Even a  ” Minor error of  ommision”   attracts guilt and perceived fear among the physicians. Meanwhile  many  of the ” Major errors of commission”  done by professionals are rarely frowned upon and thus these  mistakes continue to perpetuate !

*There should be a strong provision in medical law to address the issue of inappropriate procedures even if the procedure has not resulted any untoward effect to the patient.

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